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- Here's an excerpt from The Modem Reference, written by Michael A.
- Banks and recommended by Jerry Pournelle in Byte, The Smithsonian
- Magazine, et al.
- The right to reproduce this article is granted on the condition
- that all text, including this notice and the notice at the end of
- the article, remain unchanged, and that no text is added to the
- body of the article.
- Thanks! --MB
-
- BITS, BAUD RATE, AND BPS
- Taking the Mystery Out of Modem Speeds
- by Michael A. Banks
-
- (Copyright, 1988, Michael A. Banks. All rights reserved.)
-
- Modem transmission speed is the source of a lot of
- confusion, even among otherwise informed computer and modem
- users. The root of the problem is the fact that the terms "baud"
- and "bits per second" are used interchangeably and
- indiscriminately. I strongly suspect this is a result of the
- fact that it's easier to say "baud" than "bits per second,"
- though misinformation has a hand in it, too.
- If you've ever found yourself confused by the relationship
- between bits and baud rate, or if you think that a modem's baud
- rate is the same as the number of bits or characters it transmits
- per second, please read this article carefully; I guarantee to
- clear up the confusion and disabuse you of any false concepts ...
-
- Bits per second (bps)
- Bits per second is a measure of the number of data bits
- (digital 0's and 1's) transmitted each second in a communications
- channel. This is sometimes referred to as "bit rate."
- Individual characters (letters, numbers, etc.), also
- referred to as bytes, are composed of several bits.
- While a modem's bit rate is tied to its baud rate, the two
- are not the same, as explained below.
-
- Baud rate
- Baud rate is a measure of the number of times per second a
- signal in a communications channel varies, or makes a transition
- between states (states being frequencies, voltage levels, or
- phase angles). One baud is one such change. Thus, a 300-baud
- modem's signal changes state 300 times each second, while a 600-
- baud modem's signal changes state 600 times per second. This
- does not necessarily mean that a 300-baud and a 600-baud modem
- transmit 300 and 600 bits per second, as you'll learn in a few
- lines.
-
- Determining bits per second
- Depending on the modulation technique used, a modem can
- transmit one bit--or more or less than one bit--with each baud,
- or change in state. Or, to put it another way, one change of
- state can transmit one bit--or more or less than one bit.
- As I mentioned earlier, the number of bits a modem transmits
- per second is directly related to the number of bauds that occur
- each second, but the numbers are not necessarily the same.
- To illustrate this, first consider a modem with a baud rate
- of 300, using a transmission technique called FSK (Frequency
- Shift Keying, in which four different frequencies are turned on
- and off to represent digital 0 and 1 signals from both modems).
- When FSK is used, each baud (which is, a gain, a change in state)
- transmits one bit; only one change in state is required to send a
- bit. Thus, the modem's bps rate is also 300:
-
- 300 bauds per second X 1 bit per baud = 300 bps
-
- Similarly, if a modem operating at 1200 baud were to use one
- change in state to send each bit, that modem's bps rate would be
- 1200. (There are no 1200 baud modems, by the way; remember that.
- This is only a demonstrative and hypothetical example.)
- Now, consider a hypothetical 300-baud modem using a
- modulation technique that requires two changes in state to send
- one bit, which can also be viewed as 1/2 bit per baud. Such a
- modem's bps rate would be 150 bps:
-
- 300 bauds per second X 1/2 baud per bit = 150 bps
-
- To look at it another way, bits per second can also be
- obtained by dividing the modem's baud rate by the number of
- changes in state, or bauds, required to send one bit:
-
- 300 baud
- --------------- = 150 bps
- 2 bauds per bit
-
- Now let's move away from the hypothetical and into reality,
- as it exists in the world of modulation.
- First, lest you be misled into thinking that "any 1200 baud
- modem" should be able to operate at 2400 bps with a two-bits-per-
- baud modulation technique, remember that I said there are no 1200
- baud modems. Medium- and high-speed modems use baud rates that
- are lower than their bps rates. Along with this, however, they
- use multiple-state modulation to send more than one bit per baud.
- For example, 1200 bps modems that conform to the Bell 212A
- standard (which includes most 1200 bps modems used in the U.S.)
- operate at 300 baud and use a modulation technique called phase
- modulation that transmits four bits per baud. Such modems are
- capable of 1200 bps operation, but not 2400 bps because they are
- not 1200 baud modems; they use a baud rate of 300. So:
-
- 300 baud X 4 bits per baud = 1200 bps
-
- or
-
- 300 baud
- ------------------ = 1200 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
- Similarly, 2400 bps modems that conform to the CCITT V.22
- recommendation (virtually all of them) actually use a baud rate
- of 600 when they operate at 2400 bps. However, they also use a
- modulation technique that transmits four bits per baud:
-
- 600 baud X 4 bits per baud = 2400 bps
-
- or
-
- 600 baud
- ------------------ = 2400 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
- Thus, a 1200-bps modem is not a 1200-baud modem, nor is a
- 2400-bps modem a 2400-baud modem.
- Now let's take a look at 9600-bps modems. Most of these
- operate at 2400 baud, but (again) use a modulation technique that
- yields four bits per baud. Thus:
-
- 2400 baud X 4 bits per baud = 9600 bps
-
- or
-
- 2400 baud
- ------------------ = 9600 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
- Characters per second (cps)
- Characters per second is the number of characters (letters,
- numbers, spaces, and symbols) transmitted over a communications
- channel in one second. Cps is often the bottom line in rating
- data transmission speed, and a more convenient way of thinking
- about data transfer than baud- or bit-rate.
- Determining the number of characters transmitted per second
- is easy: simply divide the bps rate by the number of bits per
- character. You must of course take into account the fact that
- more than just the bits that make up the binary digit
- representing a character are transmitted when a character is sent
- from one system to another. In fact, up to 10 bits may be
- transmitted for each character during ASCII transfer, whether 7
- or 8 data bits are used. This is because what are called start-
- and stop-bits are added to characters by a sending system to
- enable the receiving system to determine which groups of bits
- make up a character. In addition, a system usually adds a parity
- bit during 7-bit ASCII transmission. (The computer's serial port
- handles the addition of the extra bits, and all extra bits are
- stripped out at the receiving end.)
- So, in asynchronous data communication, the number of bits
- per character is usually 10 (either 7 data bits, plus a parity
- bit, plus a start bit and a stop bit, or 8 data bits plus a start
- bit and a stop bit). Thus:
-
- 300 bps
- ----------------------- = 30 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
- 1200 bps
- ----------------------- = 120 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
- 2400 bps
- ----------------------- = 240 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
- Common speeds
- The most commonly-used communications rates for dial-up
- systems (BBSs and online services like CompuServe, DELPHI, and
- GEnie) are 300, 1200, and 2400 bps. A few older systems--
- especially Telex systems--communicate at 110 bps, but these are
- gradually going the way of the dinosaur. 4800 and 9600 bps
- modems are generally available, but few online services or BBSs
- accommodate them. This will be changing in the near future,
- however, with the cost of high-speed modem technology decreasing
- as the demand for it increases.
- Modems with even higher bps rates are manufactured (19,200
- and up) but these are not used with dial-up systems; the upper
- limit on asynchronous data transmission via voice-grade telephone
- lines appears to be 9600 bps. The use of higher transmission
- rates requires special dedicated lines that are "conditioned"
- (i.e., shielded from outside interference) as well as expensive
- modulation and transmission equipment.
- #
- If you found this article useful, you may want to pick up a
- copy of the book from which it was excerpted:
- THE MODEM REFERENCE
- by Michael A. Banks
- Published by Brady Books/Simon & Schuster
- ISBN # 0-13-586646-4 $19.95
-
- In addition to explaining the technical aspects of modem
- operation, communications software, data links, and other
- elements of computer communications, the book provides detailed,
- illustrated "tours" of major online services such as UNISON,
- CompuServe, DELPHI, BIX, Dow Jones News/Retrieval, MCI Mail, and
- others. It also contains information on using packet switching
- networks and BBSs, as well as dial-up numbers for various
- networks and BBSs.
- You'll also find hands-on guides to buying, setting up,
- using, and troubleshooting computer communications hardware and
- software. (And the book "supports" all major microcomputer
- brands.)
- For more information, contact:
- Michael A. Banks
- P.O. Box 312
- Milford, OH 45150